Decolonisation of Asia

The decline of Spain and Portugal in the 17th century paved the way for other European powers, namely the Netherlands, France and England. Portugal would lose influence in all but three of its colonies, Portuguese India, Macau and Timor.

By the end of the 17th century, the Dutch had taken over much of the old Portuguese colonies, and had established a strong presence in present-day Indonesia, with colonies in Aceh, Bantam, Makassar and Jakarta. The Dutch also had trade links with Siam, Japan, China and Bengal.

The British had competed with Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch for their interests in Asia since the early 17th century and by the mid-19th century held much of India (via the British East India Company), as well as Burma, Ceylon, Malaya and Singapore. After The Indian Rebellion of 1857, Queen Victoria was declared Empress of India, thus solidifying the British rule on the subcontinent. The last British acquisition in Asia was the New Territories of Hong Kong, which was leased from the Qing emperor in 1897, expanding the British colony originally ceded in the Treaty of Nanking in 1842.

The French had little success in India following defeats against the British in the 17th century, though they held onto possessions on the east coast of India (such as Pondicherry and Mahar) until decolonisation. The French established their most lucrative and substantial colony in Indochina in 1862, eventually occupying the present-day areas of Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia by 1887.

Japan's first colony was the island of Taiwan, occupied in 1874 and officially ceded by the Qing emperor in 1894. Japan continued its early imperialism with the annexation of Korea in 1910.

The United States entered the region in 1898 during the Spanish–American War, taking the Philippines as its sole colony after a mock battle in the capital and the later formal acquisition of the Philippines from Spain through the 1898 Treaty of Paris.

The following list shows the colonial powers following the end of World War II in 1945, their colonial or administrative possessions and the date of decolonization.

Notes

Burma

See Burma's colonial era.

Burma was almost completely occupied by the Imperial Japanese Army during the Second World War. Many Burmese fought alongside Japan in the initial stages of the war, though the Burmese Army and most Burmese switched sides in 1945.

A transitional government sponsored by the British government was formed in the years following the Second World War, ultimately leading to Burma's independence in January 1948.

Cambodia

See Cambodia's path to independence.

Following the capitulation of France and the formation of the Vichy regime, France's Indochinese possessions were given to Japan. While there was some argument that Indochina should not be returned to France, particularly from the United States, Cambodia nevertheless remained under French rule after the end of hostilities.

France had placed Norodom Sihanouk on the throne in 1941 and was hoping for a puppet monarch. They were mistaken. However, the King led the way to Cambodian independence in 1953, taking advantage of the background of the First Indochina War being fought in Vietnam.

Ceylon

See Ceylon independence.

Ceylon was an important base of operations for the Western Allies during the Second World War. The British gave in to popular pressure for independence and in February 1948, the country won its independence as the Dominion of Ceylon.

China

For some clarification and more detail including the sovereignty status of the Republic of China, see the following articles: History of China, Cross-Strait relations, One-China policy and Political status of Taiwan. Hong Kong was returned to the United Kingdom following its occupation by the Japanese during the Second World War. It was controlled directly by a British governor until the expiry of the ninety-nine-year lease of the New Territories, which occurred in 1997. From that date, the territory was returned to People's Republic of China and controlled as a Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China.

Philippines

Philippine revolutionaries unilaterraly declared independence from Spain in 1898, during the Spanish–American War, but sovereignty remained with Spain. Spain ceded the Philippines to the United States in the 1898 Treaty of Paris that concluded that war. In 1899, Philippine revolutionaries established the insurgent First Philippine Republic. Shortly thereafter, the Philippine–American War began, ending in 1901 with a U.S. victory, though isolated fighting continued for several years thereafter.

In 1902, the Philippines became a U.S. territory with the passage of the Philippine Organic Act, later becoming a U.S. Commonwealth in 1936. It was occupied by the Japanese during the Second World War. In 1943, with Japan granting it a short-lived nominal independence. In 1944, the Allied invasion of the Philippines by combined U.S. and Filipino troops began, which resulted in Americans and Filipinos regaining full control of the nation. In 1946, the United States recognised Philippine independence in the 1946 Treaty of Manila.

The "colonial power" and "colonial name" columns are merged when required to denote territories, where current countries are established, that have not been decolonised but achieved independence in different ways.

The 9 states may be divided into the following five regional categories. The distinguishing traits of each region result from geographic and cultural factors as well as their respective historical relations with Russia. Not included in these categories are the several de facto independent states presently lacking international recognition (read below: Separatist conflicts).

British colonies in South Asia, East Asia, And Southeast Asia:

•   British Burma (1824–1948, merged with India by the British from 1886 to 1937)
•   British Ceylon (1815–1948, now Sri Lanka)
•   British Hong Kong (1842–1997)
•   Colonial India (includes the territory of present-day India, Pakistan and Bangladesh)

  Danish India (1696–1869)

  Swedish Parangipettai (1733)

  British India (1613–1947)

  British East India Company (1757–1858)

  British Raj (1858–1947)

French colonies in South and Southeast Asia:

•   French India (1769–1954)
•   French Indochina (1887–1953), including:

• French Cambodia (1863–1953)
• French Laos (1893–1953)
• French Cochinchine, Annam and Tonkin (1862–1949, now Vietnam)
• Guangzhouwan (1898–1945)

Dutch, British, Portuguese colonies and Russian territories in Asia:

•   Dutch India (1605–1825)
•   Dutch Bengal
•   Dutch Ceylon (1656–1796)
•   Portuguese Ceylon (1505–1658)
•   Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia) – Dutch colony from 1800 to 1949 (included Netherlands New Guinea until 1962)
•   Portuguese India (1510–1961)
•   Portuguese Macau – Portuguese colony, the first European colony in China (1557–1999)
•   Portuguese Timor (1702–1975, now East Timor)
•   Malaya (now part of Malaysia):

  Portuguese Malacca (1511–1641)

  Dutch Malacca (1641–1824)

  British Malaya, included:

• Straits Settlements (1826–1946)
• Federated Malay States (1895–1946)
• Unfederated Malay States (1885–1946)

  Federation of Malaya (under British rule, 1948–1963)

•   British Borneo (now part of Malaysia), including:

•   Labuan (1848–1946)h
•   North Borneo (1882–1941)

•   Crown Colony of North Borneo (1946–1963)

•   Crown Colony of Sarawak (1946–1963)

• Brunei

•   British Brunei (1888–1984) (British protectorate)

•   Russian Manchuria – ceded to Russian Empire through Treaty of Aigun (1858) and Treaty of Peking (1860)
• Philippines:

  Spanish Philippines (1565–1898, 3rd longest European colony in Asia, 333 years),

•   Singapore – British colony (1819–1959)
•   Insular Government of the Philippine Islands - U.S. colony (1902-1946)
• Taiwan:

  Spanish Formosa (1626–1642)

  Dutch Formosa (1624–1662)

• Bahrain

•   Portuguese Bahrain (1521–1602)
•     British Protectorate (1861–1971)

• Iraq

•   Mandatory Iraq (1920–1932) (British protectorate)
•   Kingdom of Iraq (1932–1958)

• Israel and Palestine

•   Mandatory Palestine (1920–1948) (British Mandate)

• Jordan

•   Emirate of Transjordan (1921–1946) (British protectorate)

• Kuwait

•   Sheikhdom of Kuwait (1899–1961) (British protectorate)

• Lebanon and Syria

•   French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon (1923–1946)

• Oman

•   Portuguese Oman (1507–1650)
•   Muscat and Oman (1892–1971) (British protectorate)

• Qatar

•   British protectorate of Qatar (1916–1971)

• United Arab Emirates

•   Trucial States (1820–1971) (British protectorate)

• Yemen

•   Aden Protectorate (1869–1963)
•   Colony of Aden (1937–1963)
•   Federation of South Arabia (1962–1967)
•   Protectorate of South Arabia (1963–1967)

Independent states

• Afghanistan – founded by the Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919 of the United Kingdom and declared independence in 1919

•   Emirate of Afghanistan (1879–1919) (British protectorate)

•     China – independent, but within European cultures of influence which were largely limited to the colonised ports except for Manchuria.

• Concessions in China
• Shanghai International Settlement (1863–1941)
• Shanghai French Concession (1849–1943)
• Concessions in Tianjin (1860–1947)

•   Bhutan – in British sphere of influence
•   Iran – in the Russian sphere of influence in the north and British in the south
•   Japan – a Great power that had its own colonial empire (including Korea and Taiwan)
•       Mongolia – in the Russian sphere of influence and later Soviet controlled
•   Nepal – in British sphere of influence
•   Saudi Arabia - most of Saudi Arabia has always been independent, including the Sharifate of Mecca in Hejaz which was under the Ottomans but with a dual system of government shared between the Sharif and the Ottoman Wali or governor.
•   Thailand – the only independent state in Southeast Asia, but bordered by a British sphere of influence in the north and south and French influence in the northeast and east
•   Turkey – successor to the Ottoman Empire in 1923; the Ottoman Empire itself could be considered a colonial empire
•   Philippines – newly independent state who fought against the United States from 1899-1902. The nation was dissolved after the American victory. It was led by President Emilio Aguinaldo who struggled to keep the nation's independence. On April 19, 1901, Aguinaldo took an oath of allegiance to the United States. This marked the formal end of the Republic as he recognized the sovereignty of the United States over the Philippines.

The following list shows the colonial powers following the end of World War II in 1945, their colonial or administrative possessions and the date of decolonisation.

•   Japan:
  •   Manchuria (Manchukuo), Northern China (1945/1946)
  •   Philippines (1945/1946)
  •   Burma (1945/1948)
  •   North Korea (1945/1948)
  •   South Korea (1945/1948)
  •   Taiwan (1945/1949)
  •   Malaysia
  •   Singapore (1965)
  •   Taiwan (1642)
  •   Indonesia (1945/1949)
  •   Netherlands New Guinea (1962)

Disclaimer: Not all areas were considered part of Imperial Japan but rather part of puppet states & sphere of influence, allies, included separately for demographic purposes. Sources: POPULSTAT Asia Oceania

Other occupied World War 2 islands:

• Andaman Islands (India) – 29 March 1942 – 9 September 1945
• Christmas Island (Australia) – March 1942 – October 1945

Areas attacked but not conquered

• Kohima and Manipur (India)
• Dornod (Khalkhin Gol, Mongolia)
• Midway Atoll (United States)

Raided without immediate intent of occupation

• Air raids
  • Pearl Harbor (Hawaii, United States)
  • Colombo and Trincomalee (Sri Lanka)
  • Air raids on Australia, including:
    • Broome (Western Australia, Australia)
    • Darwin (Northern Territory, Australia)
    • Townsville (Queensland, Australia)
  • Dutch Harbor (Alaska, United States)
  • Lookout Air Raids (Oregon, United States)
• Naval bombardment by submarine
  • British Columbia (Canada)
  • Santa Barbara (California, United States)
  • Fort Stevens (Oregon, United States)
  • Newcastle (New South Wales, Australia)
  • Gregory (Western Australia, Australia)
• Midget sub attack
  • Sydney (New South Wales, Australia)
  • Diego Suarez (Madagascar)

Asia Territorial evolution of the British Empire

• French Indochina
  • French Indochinese Union (1887–1954)
    • Laos (protectorate) (1893–1953)
    • Cambodia (protectorate) (1863–1953)
    • Vietnam
      • Cochinchina (Southern Vietnam) (1858–1949)
      • Annam (protectorate) (Central Vietnam) (1883–1949)
      • Tonkin (protectorate) (Northern Vietnam) (1884–1949)
      • State of Vietnam (1949–1954)
      • Democratic Republic of Vietnam
      • Spratly Islands (1933–1939)
      • Paracel Islands (1933–1939)
    • Some territories on the eastern of Thailand. Thailand has lost 3 territories in total in the past 15 years, for example:
      • Chanthaburi Province (1893–1905)
      • Trat Province (1904–1907)
      • Dan Sai District (in the area of the Loei Province: 1903–1907)
• India and Sri Lanka
  • French India
    • French Establishments of India, composed of Pondichéry (1765–1954); Karikal (1725–1954); Mahé (1721–1954) Yanaon (1723–1954); Chandernagor (1673–1952)
• Taiwan
  • The city/port of Keelung (1884–1885)
  • Pescadores Islands (1885)
• Basilan (1845)
• China
  • The territory of Kouang-Tchéou-Wan (a dependency of French Indochina) (1898–1945)
  • The foreign concessions: French Concession of Shanghai (1849–1946), Tianjin (1860–1946) and Hankou (1898–1946)
  • The spheres of French influence officially recognised by China in the provinces of Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Guangdong
  • Shamian Island (1859–1949) (a fifth of the island)
• Palestine
• Syria or French Syria (1920–1946) (French Mandate of Syria)
  • Alawite State (1920–1936)
  • State of Aleppo (1920–1924)
  • State of Jabal Druze (1921–1936)
  • State of Damascus (1920–1924)
  • Sanjak of Alexandretta (now part of Turkey)
  • State of Greater Lebanon (now it is Lebanon) (1920–1946)
• Lebanon or French Lebanon (1920–1946) (French Mandate of Lebanon)
  • Mount Lebanon (An international protocol fixes the autonomy of the mount Lebanon under the protection of France.)
• Yemen
  • Cheikh Saïd (Some French atlases and history books claimed the territory was French, but France never occupied it and never claimed jurisdiction or sovereignty over the territory, which therefore was never French, remaining under Turkish, then Yemeni control.)

• United Nations list of non-self-governing territories
• List of dependent territories
• List of predecessors of sovereign states in Asia
• Colonialism
• Persian Gulf Residency
• Imperialism in Asia
• Taiwan under Japanese rule
• Decolonisation
• Wars of national liberation

• Panikkar, K. M. (1953) Asia and Western Dominance, 1498–1945, London: G. Allen and Unwin.